• Increased Risk of Parkinson Disease in Patients With Carbon Monoxide Intoxication
• UBC study: Road proximity, air pollution, noise, green space and neurologic disease incidence

• Radon Exposure and Neurodegenerative Disease (Gómez-Anca S, Barros-Dios JM. 2020)
  DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17207439
  "It cannot be concluded, although it is observed, that there is a possible causal association between radon exposure and neurodegenerative diseases"
  "Radon is a noble, colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It is soluble in lipids and tends to accumulate in carbon-rich body lipid tissues such as the brain tissue"
  "radionuclides accumulate 10 times more in the brain of individuals who have suffered from AD or PD"
  "astrocytes and glial cells seem to be the most sensitive brain cells to radiation. However, neurons, resist more the radiation because they do not divide."

• Wikipedia: MPP+
• Rotenone and paraquat perturb dopamine metabolism: a computational analysis of pesticide toxicity

• Proteasomal inhibition induced by manganese ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate: relevance to Parkinson's disease (Zhou et al, 2004)
  "Maneb, a widely used fungicide, has been associated with Parkinsonism in humans"

• Wikipedia: Epoxomicin
• Systemic Exposure to Proteasome Inhibitors Causes a Progressive Model of Parkinson's Disease (2004)

• Association between polychlorinated biphenyls and Parkinson’s disease neuropathology (2012)
• Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls and the Risk of Disease

• Long-term perchloroethylene exposure: a meta-analysis of neurobehavioral deficits in occupationally and residentially exposed groups (Benigus et al, 2009)
  "effects that included slowed reaction times, cognitive deficits, impaired color vision, and reduced visual contrast sensitivity"
• Impairment of mitochondrial electron transport by tetrachloroethylene (Yoshifumi et al, 1983)

• Solvent Exposures and Parkinson Disease Risk in Twins (PDF)
• Trichloroethylene and parkinsonism: a human and experimental observation (1999)
• Superfund Sites in the US

• Pesticide exposure and self-reported Parkinson's disease in the agricultural health study (Kamel et al., 2007)
• Occupation and Risk of ParkinsonismA Multicenter Case-Control Study (Tanner et al., 2009)
  "Three individual compounds, the organochlorine 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, the herbicide paraquat, and the insecticide and acaricide permethrin, were associated with more than a 3-fold increased risk of disease ..."

Estimated Residential Exposure to Agricultural Chemicals and Premature Mortality by Parkinson’s Disease in Washington State

Webinar recording: Glyphosate, the main ingredient in herbicides and Parkinson’s Disease and Beyond - Dr Shanhong Lu MD PhD

(Test for Diethylphosphate (DEP), Dimethylphosphate (DMP))

Acute poisoning: atropine and/or pralidoxime. Oximes (pralidoxime or obidoxime), and benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam).
Atropine does not act as an antidote but it is able to neutralize fasciculation (involuntary muscle twitch), weakness, flaccid paralysis, and respiratory arrest and alleviate bradycardia (slow resting heart rate <50 BPM). ref GPL "Toxic Non-metal Chemical Profile" results interpretation.

Enzymatic detoxification of organophosphorus pesticides and related toxicants

Literature does not address treatments for chronic low exposure from traditional food on which pesticides have been applied. Avoid further intake by consuming organic produce.

Also see study of the neuroprotective potential of saffron against malathion

Reference: β-Hexachlorocyclohexane Levels in Serum and Risk of Parkinson’s Disease

Dieldrin: this insecticide was once used on crops (until 1970) and termites (until 1987) and is selectively toxic to dopaminergic nigral neurons and associated with oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, protein aggregation, and apoptosis.
Reference: Dieldrin-induced neurotoxicity: relevance to Parkinson's disease pathogenesis (Kanthasamy et al, 2005)

Lindane: this insecticide was once used in agriculture (until 1970 in US, 2009 world ban) and continues to be used to treat pets and human for scabies and lice, is associated with a decrease in brain dopamine and substantial PD risk.
Reference: The neurotoxic effects of lindane at acute and subchronic dosages (Martinez st al, 1995)

• Rotenone, Paraquat, and Parkinson’s Disease?
• Genetic Modification of the Association of Paraquat and Parkinson's Disease
• Rotenone and paraquat perturb dopamine metabolism: a computational analysis of pesticide toxicity
• Paraquat elicited neurobehavioral syndrome caused by dopaminergic neuron loss (1998)
• National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Project: Agricultural use of Paraquat - map of USA

• Early Life Exposure to Permethrin: A Progressive Animal Model of Parkinson's Disease

• Rotenone, Paraquat, and Parkinson's Disease?
• Nature Neuroscinece: A new link between pesticides and Parkinson's disease (2000)
• Rotenone and paraquat perturb dopamine metabolism: a computational analysis of pesticide toxicity

• Pesticide use and incident Parkinson's disease in a cohort of farmers and their spouses (Shrestha et al., 2020)
  DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110186
  "Terbufos, trifluralin, and 2,4,5-T were associated with elevated Parkinson's Disease (PD) risk."

• Is aluminum exposure a risk factor for neurological disorders? J Res Med Sci (Inan-Eroglu and Ayaz, 2018)
  "it is widely accepted that Al is a recognized neurotoxin, which could cause neurodegeneration"
  "flouride has also been shown to be capable of elimination of Al in urine and feces"
  "Among these reactions affected by Al, there are mechanisms effective on brain development, such as axonal transport, neurotransmitter synthesis, synaptic transmission, phosphorylation or de-phosphorylation of proteins, protein degradation, gene expression, peroxidation, and inflammatory responses."
  DOI: 10.4103/jrms.JRMS_921_17
• Aluminum-containing antacids as a cause of idiopathic Parkinson's disease Med Hypotheses (Altschuler, 1999)
  DOI: 10.1054/mehy.1997.0701

• Synergism in aluminum and mercury neurotoxicity (Alexandrov et al, 2018)
  "aluminum sulfate and mercury sulfate when added together exhibit a remarkable and significant synergism in their activation of the NF-kB (p65) complex to manifold than that which each metal sulfate could induce by itself"
  Note that NF-kB (p65) is a pro-inflammatory activator complex. NF-kB family members are responsible for up-regulating dozens of genes including those expressing the pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, immuno-receptors, cell adhesion molecules and microRNAs.

• Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in aluminium neurotoxicity and its amelioration: A review [PDF] (Kumar et al, 2013)
  "The available evidence from literature suggest significant protective effects of some chelators, plant extracts and antioxidant nutrients such as vitamins, selenium, zinc, curcumin, melatonin and so forth"
  "... dietary vitamin E supplementation to Al lactate (10 mg/kg b.wt. i.p. 4 weeks) decreased brain tissue Al levels in different regions and increased CAT and GSH levels in male rats."
  "a chelating agent forming a stable complex with a toxic metal may shield the metal ion from biological targets, thereby reducing the toxicity, or it may expose the metal to the biological environment and prevent the metal from being scavenged by biological protective mechanisms and thereby increase the toxicity of the metal."
  "Selenium is a cofactor of GPx, which enhances the availability of GSH, which is one of the most abundant intrinsic antioxidant involved in preventing lipid peroxidation (LPO) and resultant cell damage."

desferrioxamine (DFO), deferiprone, deferoxamine mesylate, Silicic acid (SiOH₄: oxygenated silica), bentonite clay, flouride (also a neurotoxin), citric acid, magnesium, EDTA.

Ref Non-invasive therapy to reduce the body burden of aluminium in Alzheimer's disease (Exley et al, 2006)
DOI: 10.3233/jad-2006-10103

Volvic water contains 32 mg/L silica/500mL bottle, 12 L water/case

Fiji water contains 93 mg/L silica (1 bottle)

Silica (eg Eidon silica mineral supplement) also available as a concentrate which can be added to water (2 ml added to 8 oz water).

• From the Cover: Arsenic Induces Accumulation of α-Synuclein: Implications for Synucleinopathies and Neurodegeneration (Cholanians et al, 2016)
  "Environmental arsenic (As)-containing pesticide use correlates with increased incidence of PD"
  "epidemiological studies revealed significant associations between As pesticide exposure and late onset PD"
  "Exposure to As is known to increase the expression of LC3 I/II and its binding partner, P62. This increase is due to initiation of autophagy processes in combination with an inhibition of autophagic flux, resulting in accumulation of LC3 I/II and P62, a consequence of the inability of the autophagosome to fuse with the lysosome to complete autophagy."
  "... As induces cell stress pathways, which, although initially activate autophagy, result in the subsequent accumulation of SYN and UB oligomers ..."
  "Redox active metals, including iron, copper, and manganese can stimulate SYN oligomerization/aggregation"
  "As can induce stress-response pathways in the brain, and the effects persist even after removal of the toxicant."
• Synergistic Neurotoxic Effects of Arsenic and Dopamine in Human Dopaminergic Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y Cells (Shavali and Sens, 2008)
  "This study provides initial evidence that As⁺³ and dopamine (DA) synergistically can cause enhanced toxicity in cultured neuronal cells possessing dopaminergic differentiation"

• Parkinsonism after acute cadmium poisoning (Okuda et al, 1997)
  DOI: 10.1016/S0303-8467(97)00090-5
  "The case suggests that cadmium intoxication may damage the basal ganglia, resulting in parkinsonism."

• Iron Chelation Nanoparticles with Delayed Saturation as an Effective Therapy for Parkinson Disease (2017)
• Brain ferritin iron may influence age- and gender-related risks of neurodegeneration (Bartzokis et al, 2007)
  "Brain iron promotes oxidative damage and protein oligomerization that result in highly prevalent age-related proteinopathies such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB)."
• Dose- and time-dependent alpha-synuclein aggregation induced by ferric iron in SK-N-SH cells (Li et al, 2010)
  "Conclusion: Ferric iron can induce alpha-synuclein aggregation, which is toxic to the cells, in a dose- and time-dependent way."
• The Role of Xenobiotics and Trace Metals in Parkinson's Disease (Bjorklund et al 2019)
  "It has been reported that after 6 months of chelator deferiprone therapy, it can be effective through the improvement of gait and reduction in dyskinesias in neurodegeneration associated with brain Fe overload"
  "deferiprone remarkably decreased biological damage and labile Fe in oxidation-stressed animals and cells at 30 mg/kg/day through the improvement of motor functions in increased striatal dopamine"

• Chronic Lead Exposure Increases Risk of Parkinson Disease (Neurology Today, 2009)
• Postnatal inorganic lead exposure reduces midbrain dopaminergic impulse flow and decreases dopamine D1 receptor sensitivity in nucleus accumbens neurons (Tavakoli et al, 2005)
  "Lead treatment via drinking water for 3 to 6 weeks at 250 ppm was found to significantly decrease the number of spontaneously active dopamine (DA) neurons in both the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area ..."
  "lead exposure decreases DA neuron impulse flow presynaptically and decreases DA D(1) receptor sensitivity postsynaptically in the nucleus accumbens."

• Manganese and Parkinson’s Disease: A Critical Review and New Findings
• Manganese promotes the aggregation and prion-like cell-to-cell exosomal transmission of α-synuclein
• Manganese activates NLRP3 inflammasome signaling and propagates exosomal release of ASC in microglial cells
• Manganese exposure induces microglia activation and dystrophy in the substantia nigra of non-human primates (Verina et al, 2011)

• Mercury and Parkinson's Disease: Promising Leads, but Research Is Needed (Torrey and Simmons, 2023)
• Parkinson’s Disease, Macular Degeneration and Cutaneous Signs of Mercury Toxicity
• Parkinson's Disease and Mercury

• Plastic Waste Contaminants Could Promote Parkinson’s
• Anionic nanoplastic contaminants promote Parkinson’s disease–associated alpha-synuclein aggregation (Liu et al, 2023)

• Biphenol A glucuronidation in patients with Parkinson's disease (Landolfi et al, 2017)
  "Parkinson's patients have a reduced ability to inactivate BPA."